Early Central Kingdoms
Funan (1st to 6th Century AD)
Funan which was centered around the Mekong Delta, was known in the ancient languages of the region as Suvarnabhumi (Sanskrit), meaning 'land of gold'.
The leading hypotheses is that the Funan people were mostly of Mon–Khmer origin. The Kingdom of Funan was the first and most powerful Southeast Asian kingdom at the time. The civilization spanned a large area with settlements across present-day Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
Chinese annals confirm Funan's existence as an Indianized state that existed from the 1st to 6th century CE. The development of Suvarnabhumi from inland communities to coastal centres, was due to their economic and cultural interaction with seafarers from the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. They transported both new techniques and artefacts to the various settlements across Southeast Asia.
Areas comprising of what is now Thailand, were part if Maritime Jade Road. This was the main force influencing later developments of populated centres into states, with centres of trade and cultural activities.
Dvaravati (6th to 11th Century AD)
Dvaravati was an ancient Mon principality that thrived from the 6th to the 11th century, in what is now central Thailand. Recent dating of artifacts typical of Dvaravati culture from the U Thong site suggests that the origins of this cultural tradition may extend as far back as 200 AD.
The name "Dvaravati" comes from coins inscribed in Sanskrit with the term "śrī dvāravatī," which means "that which has gates." The Dvaravati culture was centered around moated cities, with U Thong and Nakhon Pathom being some of the earliest.
Dvaravati is believed to have adopted Theravada Buddhism through its interactions with Sri Lanka, while its ruling elite practiced Hindu rites. The art of Dvaravati, including Buddha sculptures and stupas, showed a strong resemblance to the styles of the Gupta Empire in India. In the eastern parts of the Chao Phraya Valley, Hindu influences were more pronounced with inscriptions found in both Khmer and Sanskrit.
By the 10th century, the city-states of Dvaravati began to consolidate into larger mandalas, such as Lavo (modern-day Lopburi) and Suvarnabhumi (modern-day Suphan Buri). Dvaravati culture started to decline around this time, submitting to the more unified Lavo-Khmer polity.
Dvaravati's significance further diminished with the rise of the Angkor Empire in the lower Mekong basin during the 11th to 13th centuries. By the 14th century, the territories fragmented into the city-state confederations of Suphannabhumi in the west and the Lavo Kingdom in the east.
Lavo (648 AD to 1388 AD)
The Lavo Kingdom was centered around present-day Lopburi. It is said to have been established as a city proper in 648 after two centuries of Mon settlement in the area.
The first ruler of the Haripunjaya Kingdom in northern Thailand, was a princess from Lavo. The first three centuries of its existance was a period of relative peace and prosperity, which saw Lavo’s rise and influence on neighboring states. Initially the kingdom was ruled from Lavapura, but later it was moved to Ayodhaya (the precursor to Ayutthaya) from 1082.
The 10th century saw a breakdown in old alliances, with Lavo at war with Haripunjaya between 925 – 927 AD. This conflict spilled over to other regions resulting in eventually the kingdom of Tambralinga (present day Nakhon Si Thammarat in southern Thailand) to occupy Lavo.
The king appointed his son Kampoch as Lavo’s ruler, who then took the ex-Lavo queen as his consort that maintained the existing royal lineage. Thereafter Kampoch also married a Khmer princess that bonded relationship with the Khmer empire.
The conflict Haripunjaya and Lavo still continued and weakened both kingdoms. Lavo was thereafter occupied by another southern state related to Tambalinga. Later Suryavarman I, the son of Kampoch and his Khmer princess wife, recaptured the kingdom. Suryavarman eventually king in the Khmer empire, and Lavo being absorbed into the Khmer empire in 1022.
The Khmer empire’s extended fringe border provinces that were likely populated by Tai people. The Tai people (known as Syam in Khmer) from the northern regions had also by then settled in Lavo provinces. The Tai adopted both Mon alphabet and Khmer alphabet, which developed into their own writing systems. Animist beliefs were also incorporated when they adopted the Buddhist religion.
Despite intermarriage between the Tai and the Khmer ruling families, the Tai people kept their distinct cultural and ethnic identity, retaining their own languages and units of social order. Lavo's large Tai population and its roots in the Dvaravati were considered a province of Angkor that had its own Syamese (Siamese) identity.
Over time the Tais started to resist Khmer control. In the north, the Tai declared independence from Lavo in 1239 – giving birth to the Sukhothai Kingdom. The expansion of Sukhothai under King Ram Khamhaeng, led to the shrinking of Lavo to its heartland of Lopburi.
The lower Chao Phraya Basin was by then split between the Lavo Kingdom, which dominated the eastern half of the Lower Chao Phraya, and the Suphanburi dominating the west. In 1350, Uthong of Lavo and Borommarachathirat I of Suphan Buri co-founded the city of Ayutthaya. Uthong who became King Ramathibodi and his son King Ramesuan, became the first two monarchs of Ayutthaya, and the last two rulers of Lavo.
Ayutthaya (1350 AD to 1767 AD)
The area around Ayutthaya was inhabitant for at least 500-years, by city states that included Sangkaburi and Ayodhaya, prior to its being establish as the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1350.
The period thereafter was followed by rivalry between the families of its two founding rulers; the Uthong family from Lopburi (Lavo) and the Borommarachathirat family from Suphanburi. The Borommarachathirat family prevailed and became the ruling family from the year 1408.
From the late 13th to the 15th centuries, the Ayutthaya Kingdom expanded its influence southward into the Malay Peninsula, demanding tribute from local principalities, including Temasek (modern Singapore). This era marked Ayutthaya's development as a maritime confederation closely allied with maritime Southeast Asian states, though its early history is often shrouded in inconsistencies due to a lack of contemporary records.
The governance of Ayutthaya operated on a mandala system, where royal family members ruled various cities, maintaining some autonomy while swearing allegiance to the king. The Uthong and Suphannabhum dynasties engaged in political rivalries, with modern interpretations suggesting that Ayutthaya's expansion was more about political mergers than outright conquests. Culturally vibrant, early Ayutthaya was noted for its bustling port activities, although it faced complaints from Malay cities regarding its aggressive actions.
The period from the 1430s to 1600 saw increased warfare, with Ayutthaya bolstering its military strength, including a notable force of elephants. This led to territorial acquisitions in western regions, leveraging its strategic position along vital trade routes. By the 15th century, Ayutthaya transitioned from a maritime to a hinterland state, absorbing northern territories and redirecting trade routes inland. Despite failed military campaigns against the Malacca Sultanate, King Trailokkanat implemented reforms to centralize governance, thus diminishing local rulers’ autonomy.
However, the wealth of Ayutthaya led to succession struggles from the 16th century, with power shifting among various influential lords, particularly during the Burmese invasions. The mid-16th century marked repeated attacks from Burma's Taungoo dynasty, culminating in the capture of Ayutthaya in 1569. Although King Naresuan later declared independence, the conflict persisted until 1618, when a treaty solidified Burmese control over certain regions.
The early 17th century brought a cessation of hostilities and an era of peace under King Ekathotsarot, who expanded trade with European powers. Following his death in 1605, a succession crisis ensued, leading to the rise of King Narai in 1656, whose reign was characterized by trade expansion and military modernization. However, religious tensions and court intrigues ultimately led to his downfall and the usurpation by Phetracha, who expelled French forces and curtailed diplomatic relations with most European powers.
As European influence waned, Ayutthaya experienced a resurgence through increased trade with Qing China, particularly due to rice shortages in Southern China. This period saw the rise of capitalist practices and a growing Chinese population, which contributed significantly to the local economy.
The decline of Ayutthaya culminated in the mid-18th century when the newly empowered Burmese Konbaung dynasty launched invasions fueled by a belief that Siam supported local rebels. The first siege in 1759 was lifted but resumed under Hsinbyushin in 1765. The siege escalated over 14 months, resulting in Ayutthaya's fall on April 7, 1767. The city's destruction was catastrophic, with significant loss of life and cultural heritage.
Thonburi (1767 AD to 1782 AD)
Soon after the fall of Ayutthaya, the Burmese diverted most of its forces to the north due to the Sino-Burmese War (1765 – 1769). The Burmese left only a garrison near Ayutthaya, while the country fractured under the control of five local chieftains.
General Phraya Tak who had been the governor of Tak in the north west, relocated to Chantaburi in the east after the fall of Ayutthaya. He galvanized his followers to reunite and reestablish Siam, and led an army of 5,000 men that attacked and defeated the Burmese. He then founded the new Siamese capital at Thonburi, and enthroned himself in December 1767, and was known as King Taksin, a combination of his title Phraya Tak and his name Sin.
Situated on the west bank at the southern part of the Chao Phraya River, Thonburi was chosen for both defensive and commercial purposes. It also served as a centralized location to launch rapid military campaigns to reunify the north and south. By August 1770 King Taksin defeated the last remaining rival at Phitsanulok. With the conquest of this last rival, King Taksin's unified Siam within just three years after the fall of Ayutthaya.
In the 18th century, Hà Tiên (port city in Vietnam) emerged as a significant economic center in the Gulf of Siam under the rule of Mạc Thiên Tứ. Following the fall of Ayutthaya, princes Chao Sisang and Chao Chui sought refuge in Oudong and Hà Tiên, respectively. Mạc Thiên Tứ informed the Qing court that Ayutthaya royalty was with him, which led to the Qing's refusal to recognize King Taksin as the legitimate ruler of Siam. King Taksin's attempts to seek recognition and tribute from the Vietnamese aligned King of Cambodia also failed.
King Taksin then commanded Phraya Yommaraj Thongduang (later King Rama I) to lead a 10,000-strong army, while he led a naval fleet of 15,000 to invade Cambodia and Hà Tiên. By November 1771, Hà Tiên had fallen to Siamese forces. Mạc Thiên Tứ escaped to another part of Vietnam, but Prince Chui was captured and brought to be executed at Thonburi, while Prince Sisang died in 1772.
Following counter attacks, King Taksin realized that control over Cambodia and Hà Tiên was untenable, and withdrew his troops in 1773. The deposed Cambodian king formally abdicated in favor of his rival, who became the new monarch, and whom favoured Siam. With the Ayutthaya princes gone, the Qing court also changed attitude, and recognized King Taksin as the legitimate ruler the Kingdom of Siam.
After the Burmese conquest of Lanna in 1763, Chiang Mai returned to Burmese rule, with Governor Thado Mindin oppressing local nobles. In 1771, King Taksin attempted to capture Chiang Mai but failed. Meanwhile, Lanna noble Phaya Chaban Boonma led resistance against the Burmese. By 1772, the Burmese King Hsinbyushin recognized Siam's resurgence under Taksin and prepared a new invasion, mobilizing troops from Chiang Mai and Martaban. In December 1774, Taksin launched an expedition to seize Chiang Mai, coinciding with a Mon refugee crisis. Phaya Chaban allied with Kawila of Lampang, and together they helped Taksin's forces capture Chiang Mai in January 1775, marking the start of Siamese dominance in Lanna after 200 years of Burmese rule.
The Burmese retaliated, attempting to reclaim Lanna and launching the Bangkaeo Campaign in early 1775. Despite initial successes, Burmese General Maha Thiha Thura's plans were thwarted by the Siamese victory at Bangkaeo, where they encircled the Burmese for 47 days until surrender. Later that year, Maha Thiha Thura led a massive invasion of Northern Siam, besieging Phitsanulok and defeating Taksin at the Battle of Pakphing in March 1776. However, the campaign abruptly ended with the death of King Hsinbyushin, forcing Maha Thiha Thura to abandon his troops and return to Burma. This shift allowed Taksin to pursue the retreating Burmese, leading to the withdrawal of their forces by August 1776 and bringing an end to the conflict, thereby securing Siam's sovereignty once again.
In 1765, the Lao kingdoms of Luang Phrabang and Vientiane became vassals of Burma. Following the Siamese capture of Chiang Mai in 1775, Burmese influence in Laos diminished. In 1778, Lao secessionist Phra Vo sought Siam's protection against King Ong Boun who was an ally of Burma, but was killed by Ong Boun, prompting King Taksin to invade Laos. Ong Boun’s son, Nanthasen, defended Vientiane for four months before surrendering in 1779. The victorious Siamese reclaimed the sacred Emerald Buddha, previously housed in Chiang Rai, and brought it to Thonburi's Wat Arun. Subsequently, the Lao kingdoms of Luang Phrabang, Vientiane, and Champasak became tributaries of Siam.
After King Taksin's defeat at the hands of the Burmese in 1776, he ceased to personally lead armies in battlefields, and instead relegated military commands to Phutthayotfa Chulalok and his brother who effectively won the war. Phutthayotfa Chulalok held the title of Somdet Chaophraya Chakri (minister of the northern province) and later Somdet Chaophraya Maha Kasatsuek, a noble title as high as no Siamese official had born before him, making him quasi-royalty.
In December 1781, the King Taksin dispatched Phutthayotfa Chulalok and his brother to Cambodia to battle the Vietnamese and reassert Siamese control. It is said that by this time, King Taksin had already started to show signs of mental distress and paranoia. His actions of meeting out severe punishments and executions were seen to be in unwarranted and excessive.
In March 1782, a rebellion broke out at Ayutthaya, and King Taksin ordered Phraya San to quell the situation. However, Phraya San switched side and attacked Thonburi. Phutthayotfa Chulalok informed about the incidents while in Cambodia, brokered a truce with the Vietnamese, and marched on Thonburi. Upon his return, he convened a judicial court that placed King Taksin and Phraya San on trial for their actions. Both were found guilty of ‘improper and unjust actions that caused great pain for the kingdom’, and were executed together with their conspirators.
Phutthayotfa Chulalok thereafter was crowned as the new king, and gave birth to the Rattankosin Kingdom and reign of the current Chakri Dynasty.