Early Southern Kingdoms
Tambralinga (2nd Century AD - 1277 AD)
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​​​Tambralinga is mentioned in Indian literature as early as in the 2nd century. Scholars recognize Tambralinga as a kingdom that was centered around present-day Nakhon Si Thammarat. The name Tambralinga is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Tam’ (Pali ‘Tamp’), meaning copper, and ‘lingga’, a form of Hindu deity Lord Shiva that symbolizes universal power.
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​Initially, Tambralinga was under the influence of the Funan Kingdom that was based in central Thailand. In the 8th century, it became a vassal state of the Srivijaya Empire from southern Sumatra.
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In 927, Tambralinga’s king captured the kingdom of Lavo in central Thailand, and appointed his son Kampoch as Lavo’s ruler. Kampoch took the ex-Lavo queen as his consort and thereafter also married a Khmer princess, that bonded relationship with the Khmer empire.
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Tambralinga gained independence from Srivijaya by the end of the 10th century. The Chinese chronicles state that emissaries Tanliumei (Chinese rendition of Tambralinga), sent emissaries to the court of the Song dynasty as early as 1001, suggesting it had become an independent state by that time.
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The heyday of the Tambralinga Kingdom was from the 13th to the early 14th century. Its territory spread from present-day Chumphon province to a significant part of present-day Malaysia. In 1247, King Chandrabanu launched an attack to conquer Sri Lanka. Though unsuccessful, he was able to establish an independent regime in Jaffna, at the northern part of the island. However in 1258, he was lost control of Jaffna to the Pandyan Kingdom from south India. He again tried to retake the island in 1262, but was defeated and killed by the combined forces of the Pandya and Sri Lanka.
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This failed military campaigns greatly weakened Tambralinga, with the state also having to pay sizeable compensation to the victors. Combined with the changing political landscape in Thailand, the kingdom came to an end in 1277. By 1279 , a new Sukhothai tributary state under the came into existence as the Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom.
The legacy of Tambralinga was its exceptional impact on regional history. It aslo marks the only time that a Southeast Asian power launched an overseas military expedition beyond the immediate region.
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Nakhon Si Thammarat (2nd Century AD - 1277 AD)
Also known as the Kingdom of Ligor, Nakhon Si Thammarat was the southernmost tributary kingdom of Sukhothai Kingdom. It is believed to have been ruled by Sri Thammasokaraj, a relative of King Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai. ​​​​
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After the Ayutthaya Kingdom became the dominant power, Nakhon Si Thammarat became one of it important provincial cities. It however maintained its own dynastic lineage, with the post of governor being hereditary and handed down within its royal line. The substantial wealth it contributed, enabled it to maintain a high degree of autonomy, as well as direct control over northern Malay Sultanates of Pattani and Singora.
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Pattani (1457 AD - 1902 AD)
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Pattani (was a Malay sultanate thought to have encompassed the modern Thai provinces of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, parts of Songkhla, and parts of northern Malaysia. According to the Malay Annals, Chau Sri Wangsa, a Siamese prince, founded Pattani by conquering Kota Mahligai in 1457. He converted to Islam and took on the title of Sri Sultan Ismail Shah.\.
Pattani became more important after Malacca was captured by the Portuguese in 1511 as Muslim traders sought alternative trading ports. Sultan Ismail Shah was succeeded by Muzaffar Shah. This period saw the Burmese Kingdom attack Ayutthaya. Sultan Muzaffar Shah also took this opportunity to wage raise arms against Ayutthaya, but failed to take the throne and died suddenly in 1564.
His brother Sultan Manzur Shah (1564–1572) who was left in charge in Patani while he was away thereafter became the new ruler of Patani. After Sultan Manzur Shah’s death, Pattani entered a period of internal strife with a war of succession where several members of royalty murdered each other.
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In 1584, Raja Hijau (Green Queen) became its ruler apparently due to a lack of male heirs that were all killed in the preceding period. The Green Queen acknowledged Siamese authority, and brought considerable stability to the country during her 32 year rule. During her reign, Pattani prospered with increased trade, and also became a centre of culture, producing high quality works of music, dance, drama and handicraft.
Chinese, Persians, Indians, Arabs, Japanese, Portuguese, Dutch and English carried out trade at this burgeoning entrepot.
After her death, she was followed by 3 successive other female rulers known respectively at the Blue Queen, Purple Queen, and Yellow Queen. The Blue Queen and Purple Queen were the sisters of the Green Queen. While the Yellow Queen was the daughter of the Purple Queen.
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The Purple Queen was more confrontational towards the Siamese, and stopped paying tribute. She formed an alliance with the Malay state of Johor (in present-day Malaysia), and married of her daughter (later the Yellow Queen)) off to their ruler . However, her daughter was already married to ruler of Phatthalung, whio thereafter instigated the Siamese to attack Pattani in 1633–1634, but the attempt failed.
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The war with Siam had also caused considerable suffering and significant decline in trade in Pattani. The Yellow Queen adopted a more conciliatory stance towards the Siamese, and visited the Ayutthaya court to resume good relation. In 1646, Pattani joined other tributary states in a failed rebellion against Ayutthaya. In their weakened state. Yellow Queen was deposed and Pattani fell under the rule of the Sultanate of Kelatan.
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In 1688, Patani refused the authority and rebelled against Ayutthaya again. Ayutthaya invaded and subdued Patani, but political discord continued for five decades. With local rulers helpless to end the lawlessness of the region, and most foreign merchants abandoned trade with Pattani.
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In 1786, Siam dispatched an army led by Prince Surasi, the younger brother of King Rama I, to have Pattani submit to it and resume its tributary status. A series of attempted rebellions prompted Bangkok to divide Patani into seven smaller puppet states in the early 1800s during the reign of King Rama II.
Finally in 1902, Siam arrested and deposed the last raja of Patani after he refused Siam's demand for administrative reform, thus ending Pattani as an independent state.
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Singora (1605 AD - 1680 AD)
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Originally Singora was a port city founded in 1605 by Dato Mogol, a Persian Malay-Muslim who accepted Siamese suzerainty and paid tribute to the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. The port was said to be an ideal location a network with overland and riverine routes, and was able to accommodate more than numerous large vessels.
Dato Mogol died in 1620 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sulaiman. Turmoil erupted in 1630 when the neighbouring Queen of Pattani branded the new ruler of Siam, King Prasat Thong, a usurper and tyrant. The queen withheld tribute and ordered attacked Siamese territories in the south. Singora became involved in the dispute and in 1633 sent an envoy to Ayuthaya requesting help. Dutch records show that Singora town and crops were severely destroyed.
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After Ayutthaya's failed attempts to capture Pattani, Singora also then rejected further suzerainty of Ayutthaya. It declared independence in 1642 with Sulaiman appointing himself Sultan Sulaiman Shah. Trade flourished with Dutch, Portuguese, and Chinese merchants.
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Sultan Sulaiman died in 1668 and was succeeded by his eldest son Mustapha. A war with Pattani broke out soon after. Then, in 1680 Ayuthaya mounted a final offensive to reassert its control on Singora. After a siege that lasted more than six months, Singora was destroyed and abandoned.